Cross-Country Tech Talk

This page is devoted to the technology and hardware of cross-country and backcountry skiing.

Ski Types
You may have noticed is that there is an increasing trend towards specialization in skis.  So, what are the differences between all the types of skis available and why are they important?

Let's answer the second question first.  If you do not have the right type of ski for the type of skiing that you are doing, you are probably not going to have as much fun as you could have and you may actually put yourself in some danger.  Having said that, let's see what's out there.  Beginning with telemark skis, this type of ski is used for mountaineering, extreme skiing and lift-served downhill skiing and racing.  They tend to be the heaviest (e.g., 3000 g. per pair) and widest cross-country skis and usually have metal edges and a single, or alpine, camber.  Sidecut is exaggerated to help the skis turn and often reaches 10 mm., while tip widths range from 70 to 90 mm.  The most extreme versions of this type of ski are hard to tell apart from traditional downhill skis.

Backcountry skis are typically lighter versions of telemark skis that are used for off-track skiing.  Some of them may have 3/4 metal edges and a double, or cross-country, camber if they are to be used mainly for touring and less for mountaineering.  Tip widths range from 60 to 80 mm. and weights average around 2300 g. per pair.

Touring skis are the all-around type of cross-country ski, and are at home in-tracks and off-trail.  They have a cross-country camber and are typically somewhere in the middle when it comes to dimensions and weight.  5 to 10 mm. of sidecut, tip widths of 60 mm., and weights of 1700 g. per pair are typical.

Sport-touring skis work best in prepared tracks, but have some off-track capability.  Side cut is usually around 5 mm., tip width between 50 and 55 mm., and the weight of a pair of these skis is in the neighborhood of 1500 g..

Performance skis come in two styles, classic and skating.  Both styles of this type of ski are designed for use on prepared ski trails.  They are light and lively.  The classic style skis have tip widths from 45 to 50 mm., sidecut of 3 to 5 mm. and weigh about 1300 g. per pair.  Skating skis usually have no side cut, widths of around 44 mm. and tip the scales at a featherweight 1100 g. per pair.

Racing skis are also made in the two types mentioned above.  Racing skis are the lightest and narrowest of all the cross-country ski types.  Classic racing skis may have a tip narrower than the ski's waist (41.5 versus 44 mm., respectively) to reduce friction in the track, and weigh only a remarkable 1000 g. per pair.  Skating racing skis tend to have parallel sides, widths much the same as the sport-touring skis, but are lighter, sometimes weighing under 1000 g. per pair. Top of Page


Ski Construction
Most skis are made of synthetic materials these days, so this article will discuss how these types of skis are constructed.  Basically, there are three types of construction: sandwich, box and cap.

ski types figure

Sandwich construction resembles how wood skis used to be put together.  Usually two load-bearing layers of a strong material are laminated over a lighter core to produce a ski built something like an I-beam.   The load-bearing materials are usually man-made materials called composites.  These composites are made of fibers, fillers and resins.  The type of fibers and their orientation in the material's matrix give the materials their different properties.  A plastic topsheet and base are then laminated to the sandwich to complete the ski. A major variation on the sandwich construction model is the injected ski.  Skis of this type are made by placing the top and bottom sheets in a mold, which is then filled with a plastic foam that expands, which when it cures forms a core.

Box construction (or as it is sometimes known torsion-box construction) consists of a load-bearing box-like structure in cross-section that is built up around a lighter core.  The box structures are produced in many ways.  One of the most common techniques for making the box is called the wet-wrap method.  In this method a synthetic-fiber cloth is pressed or wrapped around a core and cast with an epoxy resin in a mold.

A more recent innovation in ski construction is 'cap' technology.  Cap construction is a variation on the box construction theme.  A braided fiberglass 'sock' with fibers running in different directions surrounds a foam core.  The design of the sock enables control of the ski's camber, torsional stiffness and sideflex.  Additional layers of fiberglass or in some cases carbon fibers run lengthwise down the ski to give it additional strength and stiffness.  This combination is covered with a one piece "cap" or shell of acrylic plastic.  The cap serves as a "monocoque" frame for the ski that is both lightweight and strong.

The relative difficulty of construction and the price of raw materials influences ski price.  Sandwich skis tend to be the least expensive and are usually best suited to in-track skiing.  They can be made to fine tolerances, and stiffness and flex can be precisely controlled.  Less expensive models may also be more prone to de-lamination.  Box construction skis are heavier, but stand up well to off-track use and are torsionally rigid enough to make good turns.  It's harder in the manufacturing process to control the stiffness and strength of box skis, and pairs of skis are typically made up by matching individual skis with similar characteristics from available supplies.  Cap skis are high-tech and usually expensive.  This sophisticated construction technique is versatile enough that it is suitable for use in skis designed for just about any type of skiing; from telemarking to skating. Top of Page


Ski Core Construction Materials
Skis are built of a variety of materials, and different materials are used in the different parts of a ski.  Generally speaking, skis consist of a core, structural layers, a topsheet and a base.  In this segment we take a look at the materials used in the cores of skis.  The core may make up as much as 85 % of a ski.  It may be composed of wood, foam plastic, or honeycomb materials.

Wood was once widely used in ski core construction.  Its advantages include that it is available in a wide range of densities and mechanical properties (depending on the species used), bonds well, and can be easily worked.  Disadvantages include increasing scarcity of desirable types of wood and wood's weight. An example of how wood is used in a ski comes from the legendary Rossignol Strato downhill ski, designed by Roger Abondonce a cabinetmaker.  He built the Strato with hickory and okume (an African wood) on top, because these woods have small cell-structure and will therefore minimize compression.  On the bottom he placed a long-cell, and therefore flexible, wood like ash.  When laminated together, the core possessed properties of contraction and extension that helped keep the ski base on the snow better than any other ski then in production. Today, however, only a few skis are made with wood cores.

Foam plastics, like wood, are available in a variety of densities and mechanical properties.  All are polymers.  The physical properties of foam depend on its type and the size of the cells inside the foam.  The larger the cells, the lower the density of the foam and the weaker the foam.  Four types are commonly used:  1) polymethacrylimide (PMI); 2) polyurethane (PU); 3) polyvinyl chloride (PVC); and 4) polystyrene (PS).  PMI is a lightweight, white, stiff foam that is often used to stiffen cambers.  PU is a heavier, more rigid, gray foam.  It is easier to work than PMI, but weaker by weight.  It is the most commonly used foam in injected cores.  PVC is light in weight and is generally used as a filler in the channels of wood core skis.  PS foam is the weakest of the foams and mostly used for filler in the channels of skis built of other materials.

Honeycomb materials are used in the cores of extremely lightweight skis.  Two types of material are used to make the honeycombs, aluminum and resin-impregnated cardboard.  Honeycomb materials are a spin-off of the aerospace industry and are extremely strong.
 Some foam core skis have longitudinal strands of fiberglass, wire or carbon fiber in them for reinforcement.

One of the most common manufacturing methods for inexpensive skis is injection molding.  In the injection molding process ski cores are produced by injecting the constituents of PU foam into a mold where they react.  In the reaction process carbon dioxide is formed.  The amount of carbon dioxide present and the rate at which it forms determines the cell size of the foam, which in turn determines its strength, flexibility, etc.  In addition to varying the foam's density, the amount of foam used can also be carefully controlled because  the foam can be injected from any or many places. Top of Page


No-Wax Ski Bases
There are two types of cross-country ski base:  waxable and waxless.  No wax-skis are well suited to the casual skier who does not want to, or have the time to, learn to wax.  They are also appropriate if you ski in a location where the snow temperature changes a lot, especially around the freezing point.

There are two main types of no-wax base:  1) synthetic hair and 2) mechanical patterns. Modern hair bases are a descendent of the old animal fur "skins" used a century ago. Modern "skins" are made of synthetic mohair.  They are detachable and can be removed for storage when they are not needed.  Skins are mainly needed by mountaineers and telemarkers, who use them to ascend steep slopes.  Skins are also useful on expeditions when pulling heavy loads.  They work especially well in icy conditions and on rough corn snow.  Skins typically attach to the ski with a ring over the ski's tip and clip at the ski's base.  In between, the skin is held onto the ski by a sticky, reusable glue-like material.  In addition, the skin is treated with silicone or some similar type of material to make it water repellent, to prevent it from icing up.

Pattern bases are created by repeating a small surface irregularity in the base of the ski with geometric regularity in what would normally be the grip zone of a waxable ski. When viewed from the side, such surface irregularities have a rearward sloping profile that creates an edge against which the ski can push, but that will also easily glide forward.  Each manufacturer favors a different type of pattern and some of them are actually patented (e.g., fishscale).  Two main types of pattern exist, positive, where the pattern is raised above the general level of the ski base's surface, and negative, where the pattern is milled into the base of the ski.  Pattern bases work best in wet or transitional snow, where they can compress the underlying snow and get a good grip on the track.  They work less well in icy conditions or deep powder snow.

Most pattern-base no-wax skis are meant for beginners or persons will less than perfect skiing technique.  As a result, most manufacturers seem to feel the need to include more pattern on the base of a ski than is really needed, so that these persons will be able to ski without slipping.  Unfortunately, they accomplish this by extending the pattern into the glide zone of the ski's base, so that glide is proportionately reduced.  You can partly offset this trend by buying the stiffest no-wax skis you can find in your size.  If you are looking for good no-wax skis, try the Fischer RCS Crown Classic (racing), Kneissel Pentron Cap 46 (on and off-trail) or the Madshus Trysil Multigrip E+ (groomed and ungroomed trails).  All of these skis are available at Cross-Country Ski Headquarters 800-832-2663. Top of Page


Demo'ing Skis and Other Equipment
Ever go shopping for skis and have a sales representative show you three to five models of skis that were supposedly right for you (given the kind of skiing you wanted to do, your weight, and your ability)?  Such situations beg the question:  "How's a person to decide which skis are best for them?"

The best answer is to try them all under the same snow conditions, on the same trail, and then pick the model that "skis" the best for you.  In other words, take them for a "demonstration ride," just like you would a new car that you were thinking of buying.

To demo skis you need two things:  lots of skis and snow.  More and more, dealers are realizing that as ski prices rise, potential ski buyers are becoming less and less willing to plunk down big bucks without the opportunity to personally find out how a pair of skis feel.  Those dealers that do are constructing and grooming trails near their shops that can be used for demo'ing skis.  These same dealers also typically stock a wide variety of skis by a number of different ski manufacturers.  Moreover, they will carry the same model of ski in several different lengths, as well.

What does this mean to you?  It means that you will have the opportunity to try different types of skis (e.g., touring and skating) in different lengths under the same conditions, and if you make more than one trip to the shop, you can also compare skis under different snow conditions.  Such tests can tell you a lot.  For example, some skis work better in soft snow (off-track) and some better in packed conditions (on-trail).  You may also find that a longer ski gives you better floatation and glide, but that a shorter ski is easier to turn.  Depending on which capability you value most, the choice of skis should then be obvious.

Other things that  are worth demo'ing are boots, bindings and poles.  In general, it is best to find a boot that suits you and then buy the binding that goes with it.  However, you may wish to compare the control differences between recreational (in-track) with back-country bindings before selecting a boot.  If they already haven't, women should try boots that are lasted for a female foot.  Pole length is also a matter of choice.  Longer poles make classic skiing easier and give you more glide, but shorter poles are more comfortable on hilly terrain and can provide more control on downhills.

The other big benefit you can derive from demo'ing is the experience of skiing on a well-waxed ski.  Most cross-country shop owners are experts at properly waxing skis and keep their demo skis in tip-top shape.  By trying such skis, even if you are a die-hard no-wax user, you can experience the true design potential of a cross-country ski.

 Two shops in Michigan that are especially well set up for demo'ing skis are Cross-Country Ski Headquarters in Roscommon (517-821-6661) and The Cross-Country Ski Shop in Grayling (1-800-889-7456).  Both have trails located adjacent to their facilities and both have a wide range of skis available for testing.


Maintenance, Storage and Transportation of Skis
Modern cross-country skis require very little maintenance, but there are a few things you can do help them perform up to their potential.  The main thing is to keep their bases clean, whether waxable or non-wax.  An amazing amount of stuff can build up on ski bases and almost all of it will slow a ski down.  Dirt, pine pitch, bits of leaves and other debris are all lurking on the trail and waiting to attach to your skis.

In the case of waxable skis, you should strip old wax off as soon as you can visibly see dirt building up.  When you have all the wax removed it’s also a good time to fill in any gouges that have appeared.  Clean a gouge out thoroughly with wax remover.  The citrus-based wax removers are the safest.  Use a p-tex "pencil" iron to melt a string of p-tex into the gouge.  The p-tex pencil (looks like a wood-burning tool or small soldering iron) and strings of p-tex can be ordered from Tognar Toolworks (www.tognar.com or 800-229-9904).  After you have filled in all the gouges, use a metal scraper or surform plane to remove any excess p-tex.  Finally, reapply glide and kick wax appropriate for the temperatures you are likely to encounter.

For no-wax skis it’s a good idea to wipe them down with some wax remover every now and then and then apply some new glide wax (e.g., Swix F-4) or other product that enhances glide (e.g., Speed Cote).  The same goes for no-wax skis with respect to gouges:  fill them in!

After you have cleaned up and renewed your ski bases, check the binding screws and put a little WD-40 on the binding mechanism.  Rubbing some paraffin or candlewax on the part of the binding beneath your foot will help reduce ice and snow build up because snow doesn't stick to the wax.  Finish up the job by waxing the top of the skis with a furniture wax, like Pledge; just don't get any of the spray on your base wax.

The ritual just described is also a good one to go through at the end of the ski season.  It will leave your skis ready to go at the beginning of the next season, so you won’t waste any time when the first flakes begin to fall.   It's especially important to make sure that waxable skis have a good coat of wax on their bases over the hot summer.  Without this protective coat of wax the base can oxidize and lose many of its good gliding properties.  If your ski bases have kind of a whitish glazed look to them they may have oxidized.  Follow instructions for base preparation in the Waxing Eloquent notes located elsewhere in our website.

It used to be that it was important to "block" wooden skis over the summer to avoid them losing their camber.  This is not a problem with modern skis.  What you don't want to do is leave them in direct sunlight or places that can get very hot (like attics).

Lastly, when you transport skis, don't expose them to road salt and grime.  If you must carry them outside your car, put them in a ski bag or at least wrap them in plastic.


Ski Bindings
Bindings should be matched to the type of skis you have and the type of skiing that you do.  Basically, there are four types of modern binding:  1) cable  2) 75 mm telemark; 3) backcountry; 4) diagonal stride or classical; and 5) skating or freestyle.

The cable binding is used for freeheel downhill skiing or mountain touring.  It basically uses a cable around the heel of your boot to wedge your boot into a toepiece that is attached to the ski.  It is very strong, simple and easy to use.  The 75 mm telemark ski binding essentially a very strong version of the old 75 mm "nordic norm" cross-country binding.  It is also simple, durable, but a little more difficult to use.  Your boot is held in the binding by a bail that clamps down on the extended sole of the boot.  The boot is located in the binding by three small pins under your toes.  With both the cable and the telemark binding the boot flexes under the ball of your foot.  In the old days this is where a lot of lighter touring boots would crack, resulting in wet feet on the trail.  New cross-country bindings pivot in front of the toes and eliminate this problem.

The backcountry binding is a heavier version of the modern cross-country binding.  The increased weight is due to the greater width and heavier construction of this type of binding.  Not only is the binding wider, but the length of the attachment bar is longer and the bar is thicker.  Both Salomon and Rottefella, the two biggest binding manufacturers, make a backcountry binding.  This type of binding is well matched with a backcountry or touring ski.

The diagonal stride or classic type cross-country binding, is characterized by a clamp located at the front of the binding that, when closed, encircles a small bar embedded in the toe of your boot.  Back of this clamp the binding may have either two thin ridges (Rottefella), or a single large ridge (Salomon), running the length of your boot and ending at your heel.

The skating cross-country bindings are similar to the diagonal stride bindings in appearance, but use stiffer flexors to hold the ski closer to the boot.  The racing bindings also use a stiffer spring in the latch mechanism that attaches the ski to the boot for more holding power.

All of the bindings except the cable and telemark use rubber flexors to control the motion of the ski and keep it close to your boot while skiing.  The skating bindings have the stiffest flexors and the backcountry bindings have the softest ones.

The backcountry and classic bindings also come in automatic versions, where the clamp is held in place by a spring, rather then a lever.  The automatic versions are fine for most types of recreational skiing.

There is an amusing story about the origin of the name of the Rottefella bindings.  The original Rottefella cross-country ski binding, designed in 1928, looked like a lighter version of the 75 mm telemark binding we still use.  When the founder of the company was asked what he intended to call his new binding, he said, “Why it looks like a rat trap.”  Rottefella is Norwegian for rat trap.


Ski Poles
It may surprise you to know that skiers have not always used two poles.  Up until the latter part of the 19th century skiers propelled themselves by means of a scooter-like stride using only one, long pole.   On level terrain the pole was used for pushing and on downhills it was dragged behind for steering like a rudder.  Today we use two poles, but with slight variations in style and length depending on what type of skiing we prefer.

There are several characteristics of ski poles that we use to describe them.  The most common is probably length.  Pole length is usually measured from the tip of the point on the basket to the tip of the grip on the other end.  The unit used usually for this is the centimeter.  The next characteristic of poles that is usually considered is weight, normally measured in grams.  Related to weight is strength.  Strength is defined as the ability of the pole’s shaft to resist breaking.  Strength has two components:  impact strength and flexural strength.  Impact strength relates to how well the shaft of a pole can stand up to a sharp blow, such as some one hitting your pole at the start of a race.  Flexural strength is a measure of how well a pole will bend before it is permanently deformed.  Liveliness is a measure of the way in which a pole bends when it is planted in the snow and how quickly it snaps back to normal as the pressure on it is released.  Liveliness is a function of stiffness (resistance to bending) and elasticity (ability to spring back after bending).  Swing weight describes the way the pole's weight is distributed between tip, basket, shaft and grip.  Racers look for a low swing weight, a balance point near the grip, high stiffness and  high strength.

Ski poles are made of various materials, including (traditionally) bamboo, fiberglass, aluminum alloys and carbon fibers. Generally speaking, recreational skiers will find fiberglass or fiberglass/graphite mixes the best material for poles.  Racers will lean towards higher percentages of graphite.

There are really only two types of baskets: round for deep snow and asymmetrical (or butterfly) baskets for packed trails.  The round baskets provide better flotation, while the butterfly baskets are lighter and promote more positive pole plants when herringboning uphill.

Grips and straps vary more now than they did for awhile.  High-end poles have mitt like grips that detach from the pole for safety and convenience.  Recreational poles should have adjustable loop straps.  Poor adjustment of pole straps is the most common technical mistake made in skiing.  30 to 70 % of your forward motion can come from your arms.  Properly adjusted straps will transfer this power more efficiently.

Pole length is a matter of personal preference, but useful guidelines are:  for classic style skiing, the tip of the grip should come up to the middle of your shoulder.  For skating, the tip of the grip should be just under your nose.  Women might prefer a pole that is 5 cm. shorter, especially for hilly terrain, because longer poles demand greater upper body strength.  Good recreational poles cost between $25 and $50.


Ski Boots
For every type of skiing there is a specific ski boot.  That means you can buy a skating boot, classic style boot, telemarking boot, backcountry boot, and touring boot.  Boots have changed dramatically in recent years.  It's almost hard to get a bad boot now, where just the opposite was the case 20 years ago.  It's still important to get a good fit, however, because nothing will ruin a ski trip faster than a blister.

When buying boots you may be confused by the sizing system.  Most ski boots come from Europe and are sized according to European standards.  For example, a typical US mens' size eleven is a size 46 in the European system.  When in doubt, ask the salesperson where you are buying the boots for help in converting sizes.  The other important fact to keep in mind with respect to boot fit is that men's and women's feet are shaped differently.  Look for a boot that is made on the last that is right for you.  Several boot makers make boots in women's sizes on a women's last, but stores don't always carry them.  They may, however, be willing to order them, if you ask.

Fit should be loose in the toes, firm around the arch and ball of the foot, and with no slippage at the heel.  Heel slippage is the cause of most blisters.  Always carry some moleskin for the first few days when you are breaking in new boots.  Heel slippage can sometimes be cured by custom insoles, or placing a pad on the tongue of the boot to position your foot snugly into the heel cup of the boot.  It used to be that you wanted to leave a finger's width of room behind your heel when your foot was in the front of the boot to give your toes enough room when the boot was flexed.  This is not as important, today, because the new cross country bindings flex out in front of the foot.  Leaving this space is still good advice for those who plan to use 75 mm three-pin binding.

All the new binding systems perform excellently, so concentrate more on getting a good fitting pair of boots.  Note, however, that the new binding systems are not compatible.  So, when buying equipment, buy the boots that fit you best and then get the binding system that fits the boot.

Touring boots that have high ankle cuffs are nice for keeping out snow.  Beware of plastized cuffs, however, because they tend to crack after a few years. For really cold conditions, you can buy overboots.  Overboots are like insulated socks that fit over your boots, but which have holes in the bottom so that you can still step into your binding.

The other thing to keep in mind is custom orthoses (footbeds) that fit in your boots.  Orthoses will adjust your boot/foot fit and give you a much better connection to the ski.  They are especially helpful if you intend to skate.  Boot prices run from $100 for good touring and recreational boots to over $500 for telemark racing boots.


Clothes: The Base Layer
There is no longer any need to be uncomfortable when cross-country skiing.  Modern fabrics and clothing designs make it possible to stay warm and dry under conditions that would have been daunting to the most intrepid arctic explorer of a century ago.

Begin at the skin.  Polypropylene remains the best material for a first layer.  No other material possesses its wicking power, which is what keeps you feeling dry.  New generation polypropylene products even overcome its only drawbacks, a somewhat rough feel and the tendency to retain odor.  My favorite first layer consists of a longsleeve crewneck top ($35) and bike brief ($26.95) made of fishnet polypropylene.  These garments are marketed under the name of Super Brynje (sic) by Reliable Racing Supply, Inc. (800-223-4448 or <http://www.reliableracing.com>).  The fishnet design keeps the layer into which moisture is wicked away from your body (so you feel drier), yet it still does a good job of picking up moisture from your skin.  The bike brief has a solid panel in the front that guys will appreciate on cold days.  Sports bras for women that are constructed from similar materials with good moisture transport properties are also available.  (Sorry, no experience with these, other than removing them in the dark).

With all these garments, as soon as you are done skiing, hug and rub yourself all over for a minute or so to allow the fabric to mop up any moisture that has accumulated on your skin.  If you follow this plan you will feel dry within 10-15 minutes, no matter how wet you were when you stopped skiing.

The agony of the de feet.  The other locations where the fabric next to your skin are key are your feet.  Keeping your feet dry is not as big a problem as it used to be because of the improvements in boot design.  Many boots now come with elastic cuffs that help seal out snow.  Nevertheless, it still pays to take precautions, because nothing can spoil your skiing faster than cold, wet feet.

My preferred solution to this problem is neoprene socks ($20-25).  These may be worn with or without liners (made of thin polypropylene).  The neoprene provides a waterproof barrier, insulation and a cushioning effect that can prevent blisters.  (I wear them in my downhill boots to prevent chafing) The only disadvantage to them is that your feet may feel a bit damp, but at least it's a warm damp. The dampness problem can usually be alleviated by the use of liners and/or some body powder.  Neoprene socks are locally available.  I've seen them for sale at Boyne Country Sports (Bavarian Village).  If you buy some, make sure to orient the seams of the sock on your foot in such a way that the seams will not cause blisters.

One last word, unless you like hypothermia, avoid cotton all costs.  Silk and wool are better, but will still leave you feeling damp for hours.  This type of claminess is especially uncomfortable if you are sitting in the car for a couple of hours driving home.


Clothes: The Insulating Layer
In "Clothes:  The Base Layer" I introduced the concept of dressing in layers and discussed options for the layer of clothing that is located next to the skin.  This layer is called the base layer.  The function of the base layer is to keep your skin dry.  The function of the next layer is to provide insulation and to transport the water from the base layer to the outside, where it can evaporate into the environment.

There are several types of material that work well as insulators when made into garments.  The ones that tend to work best are made of artificial fibers of one type or another. Sometimes more than one type of material is used in a single garment.  One popular combination is to use a smoother material on the outside and a softer, more filamentous material inside.  Hence, we see garments with an outer surface of nylon and materials such as hydrophobic (water repellent) spun polyester on the inside.  In addition, many of these garments include lycra and spandex to increase their ability to stretch while maintaining a trim profile.  So called polyester "fleece" comes into its own as an outer insulating layer.  Worn as a top layer in windless conditions, or an extra layer of insulation in very cold conditions, it performs admirably. Whatever you do, however, avoid materials like cotton or goose down that essentially loose all of their insulating power when wet.

Because garments made of these insulating materials are not particularly windproof, they will serve as a final layer only on warm days, or when the wind is not blowing.  One partial solution to this problem with fleece that manufacturers have come up with a fleece that has a windproof-backing layer.  Although reducing the ability of the wind to rob you of your heat, this windblocking layer can interfere with wicking and is best avoided.  It's preferable to wear a separate windbreaker.  The two-garment approach is preferred because you can remove the windbreaker if you really get hot and the fleece will wick better by itself.

Several types of garment can be worn as an insulating layer, but the zip-turtle neck is one of the best for the torso.  The zipper allows you vent effectively, yet the turtleneck insures you can ward off cold winds on the back of your neck.  Also, when you buy a garment as an insulating layer, make sure it has long enough sleeves and tails so that when you stretch while skiing you don't develop gaps that let in the cold air.  Another thing to consider when buying an insulating garment is that it will fit easily over your base layer.

One-piece long underwear or bibbed underwear is nice to ski in because of the way it stretches with you and because it avoids multiple layers of wadded up clothing at places like the waist.  Women take note, however, such designs make trail side pit stops challenging.

Since your arms are being used vigorously when you are skiing you might want to insulate them less than your torso.  You can accomplish this by wearing a vest over your insulating layer.  A thin nylon vest works fine for most conditions, although a heavier fleece vest may be needed on a really cold day.


Clothes:  The Outer Layer
The function of the outer layer of clothing is to protect you from the wind, rain or sleet, and sun.

Wind Protection.  Wind can make it feel much colder than it is and quickly rob your body of needed warmth.  For this reason it's important that your outer garments are windproof or wind resistant.  This usually means outer garments should be made of nylon or some other lightweight synthetic material.  In the old days, ventile (closely woven) cotton was considered a good material for anoraks and wind pants, but modern synthetics are lighter and dry out quicker making them better choices.  If you are unsure about the windproofness of a material, hold it up to a strong light and check the tightness of the weave.

Wetness Protection.  Water conducts heat much faster than air, so heat can be fully drawn out of your body if your clothes are wet.  So, on the one hand you want to avoid getting wet from the outside, say from falling snow or sleet.  But you also want to avoid getting wet from the inside from sweat, because cross-country skiing is an active sport.  This meant that in the days before garments with semi-permeable membranes (e.g., Gore-tex) keeping warm and dry was a constant process of changing and adjusting clothing.  Modern fabrics and garment designs have made the task much simpler.  Many garments are now made with membranes or coatings that wick and transfer water vapor (sweat), but not water droplets (rain, sleet).

In addition, garment design now includes draft skirts and zippered vents that make it much easier to regulate body temperature and moisture build up with the need to remove clothing.  Some materials even combine wetness and wind protection, by virtue of using hydrophobic fibers that are tightly woven in an interlocking pattern.  The 3SP "X-C" garments made by Sporthill come to mind.   The functionality of these garments is further enhanced by the addition of some "stretch" fibers, making them very comfortable for active wear.  The downside, of course, is that garments made of these materials tend to be pricey.  But sometimes they can be picked up for less in pre- or post-season sales.

Garments with coatings or membranes tend to be more fragile and need to be kept clean to function properly.  Therefore, many skiers have simple nylon shells and wind pants that they use for normal conditions, saving the expensive garments for those conditions under which their special capabilities are truly needed.

Sun Protection.  Snow is one of the most highly reflective of all surfaces.  This makes it possible to actually get a worse sunburn in winter than in summer.  Especially since due to lack of gradual everyday sun exposure, we are typically at our palest during ski season.  Ears, noses, lips and hands can all get uncomfortably sunburned skiing on warm, sunny days.  For this reason, it’s a good idea to buy outer garments with fold up collars and with sleeves that are long enough to prevent gaps between gloves when skiing.  Light gloves, brimmed caps, and lightweight earmuffs can provide additional sunblockage on warm days. On skin that remains exposed, apply a sunblock with an appropriate SPF rating for your skin.


Clothes: Head, Hands And Feet
What do your head, hands and feet have in common?  They are all connected when it comes to staying warm.  You can lose over a fifth of your body's heat through your head because of its rich blood supply and lack of skin protection.  There is a lot of good advice in the old saying that, "if your feet are cold, put on a hat".  Fingers and toes have a lot of surface area, but small volume.  Since the production of heat is proportional to volume, and the amount of heat loss is proportional to surface area, this is why they get cold quickly.  So, what can you do about it?

Let's start with the head.  Knit caps are generally warm enough for all but polar conditions.  The exception is when a strong wind is blowing.  This is when a hood on your parka comes in handy.  Knit hats are made out of wool, wool-synthetic blends and pure synthetics.  Wool is the warmest, but wool can be itchy.  Synthetics hold their shape and do a better job of wicking moisture off your face and hair.  Some manufacturers solve this problem by making wool hats with a sweat band made out of synthetic material over the forehead area.  If you wear glasses, a hat with a visor is nice for when it is snowing.  On really warm days all you may need is ear muffs or a head band.  Swix makes a really thin pair of earmuffs that work well.

Next let's turn to the hands.  Mittens are the warmest and gloves give the best control.  "Lobster claw" mittens fall in-between.  Wool is a good material for warmth, but gloves made from it will wear quickly if not covered by leather or reinforced nylon.  Your hands perspire, especially when exercising and so gloves tend to get wet.  You can solve this problem by wearing medium weight gloves with thin, polypropylene liners that you can change frequently; or, you can just carry two pairs of gloves and switch to the dry pair when the pair you are wearing gets wet.  Wearing thin glove liners is also recommended if you have to remove your gloves a lot in cold weather.  Photographers find this system effective.

If your hands get cold there are several ways to warm them.  One is to stick them in a warm place, like your armpits, for a few minutes (tip: you  can take advantage of someone else's warmth by asking your significant other for a romantic hug and thereby getting the opportunity to stick your hands inside their jacket).  Another technique to warm your hands is to vigorously swing them in large circles to shake warm blood down into them.  You can also carry small chemical heat packs in your pocket and put them in your gloves for awhile when your hands get chilly.

Lastly, let's consider your feet.  Two things you want to do are to insulate your feet and to keep them dry.  Most new boots have good insulation, but if your feet still get cold you may want to put a foam or felt insole in your boot.  It will help insulate your foot from the cold snow and your ski.  The sock or socks that you wear are also important.  They need to keep you warm and help prevent blisters.  Neoprene socks keep your feet warm and dry from snow, although they may feel a bit damp if you don't wear an inner liner sock to absorb the perspiration trapped in the sock while you are wearing it.  Some folks prefer a thick wool sock over a thinner polypropylene or silk liner sock.  Just make sure not to wear so many socks that your become scrunched and you get cold feet due to a loss of circulation.


Packs
Whether due to the exigencies of winter weather or the vagaries of snow conditions, almost all skiers find they need to carry more than can conveniently be stuffed in a pocket.  This is where packs come in.  Packs enable you to carry what you need in an efficient and comfortable way.  The following three types of pack are most used:  beltpack, daypack, and tourpack.

Beltpacks are the smallest packs and the best choice if you don't have to carry a lot of bulky items.  Their primary advantage is that they ride low on your body and don't shift around, so they will not adversely affect your balance and skiing.  The main items most often carried in a beltpack are a wax kit (or Speedcote, if you are a fan of waxless skis), a water bottle and snack, and a pocket camera.  Beltpacks range in capacity from small to gargantuan.  It's best not to choose one that is too large.  Make sure that the pack does not bulge out to the side, where it will interfere with your arm swing.  I like a pack where a water bottle (or two) can be carried externally.  This makes it easier to take a drink, which you should do often when you are actively skiing.  A small pocket in which you can secure your car keys is also desirable.  Make sure the belt is padded and wide enough so that it won't dig into your hips.  One beltpack I like has a foldout compartment with shoulderstraps that converts it into a backpack; the extra space is handy for storing a windbreaker or sweater.

Daypacks are for when you require greater carrying capacity because of uncertain or changing weather, because you will be out so long that you need extra food and water, or for safety reasons.  The key features to look for in a daypack are that it: fits the contours of the body well, is narrow enough to allow full range of arm motion, keeps the load close to the body, has a belt to keep the pack from swaying around, possesses a variety of external pockets so things can be easily accessed, and is waterproof or at least water resistant.

Tourpacks are for overnight or weekend ski trips or when you are carrying supplies for a group day ski.  The main difference between a daypack and a tourpack is the amount of material that the pack can comfortably carry.  The other difference is that tourpacks often have special features designed for the activities associated with longer tours.  These include slots for carrying skis, and attachment points for crampons and rope.  A tourpack will have all of the features found on a daypack, plus the following:  a sternum strap, internal pockets or dividers to stabilize loads, and  the shoulder straps attached close together and high on the pack to prevent the pack from shifting as you ski.

When you load a pack, keep heavy items low and close to your back.  Put frequently used items on top or in external pockets.


Emergency Trail Kits
It's never pleasant to realize that you can get hurt while having fun skiing, but it does occasionally happen.  And, the fact that it is cold and that you may be several miles from shelter and assistance when a problem occurs, make it all the more essential that you be prepared to handle the kinds of emergencies that can happen on the trail.  I will not go into first aid techniques on this page.  For that kind of training, it is recommended that you take the American Red Cross basic first aid and CPR courses.  You can call this number and get sign-up information (734-971-5300).  Instead, I will discuss what you should be carrying in your pocket or daypack to be prepared.

Here is a suggested list for a first aid kit:  1.  four 3"x3" sterile gauze pads; 2.  ten yards of 1" sterile gauze; 3.  two yards of ½" adhesive tape; 4.  small tube of antiseptic first aid cream; 5.  small ammonia inhalant vial; 6.  a dozen Band-aids in different sizes; 7.  a small first aid booklet; 8.  a CPR card; 9.  moleskin; 10.  small scissors; 11.  aspirin tablets; 12.  tweezers; 13.  four butterfly bandages; 14.  Ace bandage; 15.  five safety pins of different sizes; and 16.  several antiseptic wipes. These materials should all be packaged in a clearly marked, water-proof container.  This list was developed from long experience in several outdoor activities and everything in it was needed at least once.  Remember to make sure that  everyone in your group knows who is carrying the first-aid kit.

Minimal safety gear you should take along on every outing includes the following: sunscreen and lip protection, a whistle, snack, water, and a map.  I have a little belt pack into which I have put these supplies and just leave it with my skis.  Because it is always handy I never have to worry about finding these things before I go skiing or, worse, going skiing without them.

For longer tours or skiing in more remote areas you may want to consider taking along additional emergency preparedness gear. Other items that you should have in a daypack include:  a pocket knife, some wire and/or nylon cord, small screwdriver (that will fit your binding screws), matches and/or a lighter, some TP, an emergency blanket (made of reflective mylar), and flashlight and/or candle.

In real wilderness or extreme conditions (e.g., deep snow and very cold temperatures), you may also want to consider taking along some additional items, including:  a trowel or small shovel, extra socks and gloves, a replacement ski tip, a face mask, extra food, a small or wire saw, and an air splint.

The other thing to keep in mind is that learning how to use all this equipment is best done in a non-emergency situation.  Practice using it in your backyard, before you go skiing.  That way you won't need to take time to figure out how to properly use it in an emergency.


Car Kits and Travel Advice
Skiers by necessity travel to places where it frequently snows, sometimes a lot.  Snowy places are also cold, and because its winter, days are short.  These factors are likely to bring out the worst in your car.  They also create driving situations that are far from optimal.  Add to that the fact that we often choose to drive to far away ski destinations after work and end up driving home in early evening after a full day of skiing, and you have the potential for encountering both minor and major emergencies.

Although we may not be able to avoid an emergency, we may be able to keep a minor one from becoming major, or at least make a bad situation more bearable by taking a few precautions.  One of the easiest precautions you can take is to carry some winter emergency supplies in your car.  Here is a list of things to throw in the trunk this winter to help you be better prepared.

The other thing you should do before a ski trip is to make sure that your car maintenance is up to date.  Among the things that are easily checkable are:  tire pressures; windshield washer fluid levels (front and rear windows); fan belt tension and condition; oil level; and coolant level.  Also, don't forget to give your windows a treatment of "Rain Off."

Having prepared for any emergency you can take to the highways with confidence and enjoy the trip.  Speaking of enjoying the trip, there are also a few things you can do to promote having a good time on the road.  One is to make reservations.  This way you know where you are going and that there will be a bed waiting for you when you get there.  Make sure to take the telephone number of your destination with you.  It's also a good idea to get local directions to your destination from a well-known location to avoid late night wanderings trying to find a driveway in the dark in a blizzard.

Have a road map with you, so if you run into detours you can easily identify an alternative route.

A few snacks (e.g., cookies and fruit) and some bottled water or juice can help you get to where you are going faster by reducing stops.  They can also help you avoid the tendency to snack on gas station junk food or high-fat fast food.  And, they can help get energy levels back up after skiing or long periods of driving (often helpful when traveling with a companion who gets grouchy when blood sugar levels get low).

It also never hurts to have an old gallon jug with a tight fitting lid in the back for those times when you can't find a gas station and there's not a convenient stand of trees near the edge of the road for a "pit" stop.

Lastly, when leaving your car out at night, keep the gas tank full and park the car so that the engine/radiator is as much out of the wind as possible.


Roller Skis and Inline Skates
Two very useful training and conditioning devices for cross-country skiing are roller skis and inline skates.  The former mimic skiing better, but both are useful for conditioning.

 Roller Skis  Roller skis are like short skis with a wheel on each end.  They are meant to be used just like skis, with poles.  You wear your normal ski boot and attach it to the roller ski with a standard x-c binding.

Roller skis come in two types:  classic style and skating.  Classic roller skis tend to be longer, and one of the wheels will have an anti-reverse mechanism in it.  This mechanism acts like grip wax or the pattern on the bottom of your skis to give you something to push against so you can move forward.  You use them just like regular skis and propel yourself using a similar combination of arm and leg movements.

You can use your regular ski poles as long as they have carbide tips.  Sharp, durable tips are needed to avoid slipping on hard trail surfaces like asphalt.  Special roller ski poles are available that are more durable than regular ski poles and that do not have baskets.  The lack of baskets is an asset on paved trails, because it helps to avoid missed pole plants and reduces the weight of the pole.

Skating roller skis tend to be shorter and do not have one-way wheel ratchets in them.  Forward motion is supplied by pushing off to the side, just like with an inline or ice skate.  Brakes are generally not used on roller skis.  Roller skis typically cost between $200 and $250.

Inline Skates  Most persons will find that inline skates are probably easier to use than roller skis, and you don't need poles.  By the same token, if you do use them with poles you can more effectively simulate ski skating and get a more specific workout.  There are lots of different styles of inline skates and new models seem to come out all the time.  The key thing is to get one that fits.  There are soft shoe and hard boot models.  Trying them both is the best way to decide which is right for you.  Models with fewer wheels turn faster, but more wheels equals greater straight line stability.

Some models come with a brake on one skate that is operated by straightening up your leg.  Prices for inline skates vary more widely than for roller skis, typically ranging from $100 to $300.  Occassionally, you can find good deals at used equipment stores.

If You Plan to Buy  Try to rent first to see if you like the activity.  Inline skates may be rented from several locations around town, including Sun and Snow.  When buying either skis or skates, make sure the wheels are hard enough for the type of surfaces on which you will be rolling and that the bearings are smooth and sealed.

For inline skates, make sure the boot fits properly.  Since many of the boots are plastic, they won't stretch.  Therefore, try them on when your foot is its largest, like later in the afternoon.  Make sure to wear the sock in which you will be skating.  Buckles are more convenient, but laces are just as effective.

When buying roller skis, make sure that the type of binding you have on your boots will fit on the ski.  Heavy duty or backcountry bindings may give a greater sense of control.

Safety  Always wear a helmet, eye protection and gloves.  You may also want to consider elbow and knee pads.  When inline skating, wrist guards should also be worn.  Be careful on hills.  Its almost impossible to "snowplow" on roller skis.  Good places for both activities are Hudson Mills and Kensington Metroparks.


Heart Rate Monitors
A heart rate monitor (HRM) is a device that is capable of measuring the number of times your heart beats per minute.  If you are interested in increasing your fitness, it's a valuable instrument to own.  Its main benefit is to let you quantitatively know how hard you are exercising.  It can also help you associate subjective feelings with different ranges of exercise intensity.  Knowing in what intensity range you are exercising may be helpful in a race or a long ski tour to avoid becoming over tired before finishing.  To learn more about heart rate ranges and how to use them in training or conditioning, see Body Shop:  section 3 (specificity and heart rate monitoring) elsewhere on the Ski Club webpage (under Nordic Skiing).

Although a very effective approach to improving fitness, training based on heart rate (HR) monitoring has one drawback.  You need to know your maximum heart rate.  You can assume it is equal to 220 minus your age, if you want to trust the averages.  Far better, however, is to run some tests to actually find out your maximum HR.

 The best way to determine your maximum HR is in a lab on a treadmill, as part of a VO2 max test; this approach is an especially good idea for anyone new to exercise or serious about training.  MEDSPORT at U of M (998-7405) can administer these tests for you.

Another way to find out your maximum HR is to monitor your HR as you complete a series of difficult hill climbs while running or riding a bike.  The hill climb test works like this:  Find a steep hill that it takes you three to four minutes to climb.  Then, warm-up for 15-20 minutes.  When you are feeling limber and energetic, hit the hill.  Exert yourself at slightly less than maximum for the first half of the climb and then go all out the rest of the way.  Note the maximum rate on your HRM or take your pulse (number of beats in 15 seconds times 4) the instant you reach the top of the hill and begin slowing down.  If you want to make sure you have a good reading, repeat the event on different days until you get the same maximum HR several times.  A simpler way to obtain the same information, if you have a HRM that will record and store maximum HR, is to run or ride a challenging course and go all out for as long as you can on a few sections.

HRMs have a variety of features available.  The basic models typically allow you to monitor average heart rate, set high and low target zone heart rates, and have an "out of zone alarm."  More sophisticated models allow you to also keep track of "time in the target zone," " time above [and]below the target zone," " percentage of maximum HR," and "recovery HR."  In addition, many HRMs include a watch, stopwatch, and interval timers.  Prices vary from around $50 to $175.  For bikers, some HRMs come with a handlebar mounting adapter.

Sources of HRMs include Performance Bicycle (1-800-727-2453) and  Bike Nashbar (1-800-627-4227).


Eye and Skin Protection
Don't skimp on sunglasses.  Buy only the best quality and take good care of them.  Get a hard carrying case to store them in when you are not wearing them.  Scratch your phone number into the frame in case you lose them.  Put your name and number in the carrying case, too.  A firmly attached neck strap is also desirable.

When shopping for sunglasses look for an unbreakable frame and impact resistant lenses.  Make sure the lenses block both ultraviolet (UV) and thermal infrared (IR) radiation.  If you are going to frequently be out all day in sunny areas you may also want to get glasses that have side shields, although this are generally not necessary in Michigan.  A rubber nosepiece sometimes provides more comfort and is less likely to slip when you sweat.  Some glasses have springloaded hinges, which can prevent them from breaking in an accident and allow them to conform to your face better.

Lens color is a matter of choice.  Neutral gray is best for sunny days.  Yellow is really nice on gray days – makes the whole world look more cheerful.  Yellow is also good for low light conditions.  Both yellow and rose colored lens improve contrast and make reading the snow surface easier.  Some glasses have interchangeable lenses so you can match the conditions of the day.

Use only a very soft cotton cloth to clean glasses.  Never use napkins or tissue paper, both can scratch your lenses.  Anti-fog compounds are available that can be rubbed onto the lenses to reduce fogging up when you come indoors out of the cold.

The wavelengths of sunlight that cause sunburn are highly reflected by snow so that you get a lot more reflected sunlight in the winter than in the summer; almost as much as if you were out on the water in the summer.  This explains how you can get a sunburn on a clear winter's day, even though the sun never gets as high in the sky.  It also explains way you need to put sunburn prevention cream on the underside of your chin and even on the inside of your nose at high elevations.  If you are not wearing a hat. don't forget the fronts and backs of your ears, too.

If you are going to be outdoors for extended periods of time you should use a sunblock with an SPF rating of at least 15.  Sports sunblocks can be purchased that are also sweat resistant.

Lips also need serious protection from the sun.  Lip balms do not always contain a sunblock.  Make sure yours does.  Reapply it often if you are drinking or eating.

For extremely cold and windy conditions you may also need a skin cream that will prevent moisture loss.  Many of these creams contain beeswax and although they feel a little greasy, they do work.

After skiing, don't forget to moisturize your skin with something like aloe vera to revitalize it.  Aloe vera will also help to soothe a sunburn.